Introduction

India has significantly increased its access to education across the country over the last few years. There were 29 million more students attending school in 2018–2019 than there were in 2004–2005 (increased from 219 to 248 million). Despite this increase in enrolment, the students’ learning outcomes among all ages remain below par (World Bank, 2021). The availability and accessibility of education to the disadvantaged social groups have improved because of the affirmative action policies taken by the government, but it is accompanied by social inequalities (Wadhwa, 2018). Moreover, there are significant barriers that prevent backward castes and women students (referred to as socially disadvantaged groups) from enrolling in elite higher education institutions and taking highly valued academic courses (Sabharwal, 2021). This emphasises the need to narrow down this gap and ensure wider participation of students from the lower socio-economic background as the country aims to become an ‘inclusive society’. This aim is in line with Goal 4 of the United Nations’ (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) formulated in 2015, which intends to reach an inclusive and equitable quality education including the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030 (United Nations, n.d.).

In the field of education, the learning outcomes are influenced by the social and cultural experiences of students (Maunah, 2020). The learning outcome is the measure of abilities, skills and knowledge that the students have accomplished because of their participation in educational experiences. The effectiveness of the learning process is longitudinal in nature; it is more important than outputs and goes beyond just academic achievement (Jain & Prasad, 2018). The idea behind this article is to present the emerging forms of social and cultural capital inequalities that influence students’ learning outcomes and their access to higher education in India. This article highlights the presence of these inequalities in schools and colleges, which leads to a difference in the educational choices and learning outcomes of students. Other inequalities such as symbolic, digital and economic inequalities have not been included under the scope of this article. In a lower-middle income country like India, understanding these inequalities is critical because the biggest challenge is to effectively manage the country’s limited resources given its large population.

Methodology of the Study

This research has been articulated using secondary sources of data from different AISHE annual reports published by the Ministry of Education, various educational institutions’ reports like ASER, UGC and relevant research papers. These sources have helped the authors to form linkages between the existence of social and cultural capital in higher education. They also provide some measures to move towards an inclusive form of education and how the inequalities can be reduced.

Theoretical Framework

This research provides discussion and perspectives from the lens of French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of capital in the education system. His theory presents various forms of capital such as social, cultural and economic capital. In every society, resources such as money, power and education are not equally available and accessible to all. Economic capital includes material assets and income; social capital comprises the network of contacts and social associations; and cultural capital contains educational qualifications and status. More specifically, depending on the time period, society and social class, cultural capital can be gained to varying degrees without any conscious instruction. It always influences its class or region which marks its origination. ‘Cultural capital’ refers to acquaintances and familiarity with a society’s dominant culture. Individuals’ body language, accents and speech patterns are examples of cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1986). The author claims that the presence of cultural capital varies by social class, and this makes it extremely difficult for students belonging to the lower class to get ahead in the education system (Zimdars et al., 2009). Other authors defined cultural capital as ‘appropriate manners and good taste’ (De Graaf, 1986); ‘linguistic and cultural competence’, which includes buying and borrowing books; presence at theatres, museums and concerts; interpersonal skills; and speech styles, also forms part of cultural capital (Robinson & Garnier, 1985). This means that certain aspects of cultural capital (such as knowing slang words, greeting people properly, beliefs and behaviour) are not openly taught to children. That is sometimes referred to as the hidden curriculum cultural capital. The place in which a person is raised teaches him/her the way to behave and treat people. This implies that those with more access to cultural and social capital are more successful and can achieve higher levels of education (Pishghadam & Zabihi, 2011).

Statement of the Problem

Capital Inequalities in Higher Education in India

When compared to other countries, India’s educational attainment appears to be sluggish. Even after seven decades of policy interventions, educational inequality by gender, location and social group persists. As presented by Wadhwa (2018), parents with a high socio-economic status pass on their social and cultural capital to their children by sharing their knowledge and beliefs necessary for their children’s school and higher education success. Unfortunately, when compared to the non-first-generation peers, the first-generation peers lack social and cultural capital. This creates a disadvantaged situation for them. Moreover, a low female participation in higher education is a cause of worry as it exhibits the rural–urban divide (Varughese & Bairagya, 2020). Such inequalities create a block in the minds of the students and make them feel inferior. This is directly reflected in their learning capability and personality.

These inequalities also reflect in the students’ career path and their educational choices. These choices are the stream choices made for one’s higher education. The rational choice theory indicates that the choices are rational, but its rationality varies for individuals (Coleman, 1990). Several factors can be attributed to the educational choices such as gender issues (Chanana, 2000), parents’ background and teaching (Lahoti & Mukhopadhyay, 2020) and social-economic status (Auðardóttir & Kosunen, 2020). Furthermore, a student’s family, friends, teachers or mentors also shape their stream choice-making in higher education (Dassani, 2023). This has been further shown in Table 1 and Table 2.

Review of Literature

Social and cultural capital is important in higher education as it influences students’ access to education and their progress in academics. Pierre Bourdieu strongly claimed that individuals who had many forms of capital, including social and cultural capital, would be able to positively influence their academic life and prospects.

• Social capital and higher education: As discussed, social capital means the networks, social connections and relationships that an individual has. It has been observed that students with extensive social networks tend to have better access to information regarding scholarships, career opportunities and details about various colleges (Coleman, 1988). Such networks are a source of increased resource acquisition and lead to improved educational access. Peer network plays a key role in shaping the attitude and behaviour of students in higher education (Stanton-Salazar, 2011). The presence of supportive peer groups is positively linked to academic success. Another form of social capital is networking with alumni. They offer valuable capital about career opportunities, internship leads and mentorship (Bourdieu, 1993). The institutions can make efforts to tap these resources for the benefit of all students.
• Cultural capital and higher education: Cultural capital means the cultural knowledge, skills and habits that individuals learn during their upbringing and socialisation. Moreover, it refers to students’ cultural awareness and their ability to engage in diverse discussions (Lareau, 2003). Not only this, an individual’s language proficiency is often influenced by his/her cultural background. Language proficiency significantly impacts academic achievement (Bourdieu, 1993). Students with a strong cultural capital background may excel due to their command of the academic language. Cultural capital involves exposure to educational resources and intellectual pursuits (Bourdieu, 1986). These experiences provide students with a foundational advantage in higher education.

Discussion

Table 1 and Table 2 depict the enrolment status of males and females in technical and non-technical courses such as engineering and technology, arts and social sciences for three years. During the year 2021–2022, engineering and technology courses (PG level) had more male students enrolled, that is, 68%, and female students comprised only 32%. The years 2019–2020 and 2020–2021 present a similar trend. For the same course, at the UG level (shown in Table 2), about 71% were male students and only 29% of the female students opted for these courses during 2021–2022. Likewise, a similar pattern was found for the years 2019–2020 and 2020–2021. Conversely, during the years 2021–2022, for the arts stream (PG level), the male students accounted for 49% while the female students comprised around 51% of the total students (Table 1). The same was found at the UG level, and even for the remaining years, a similar trend was observed where the female students were enrolled more in number when compared to male students. For the social sciences courses (PG level), a higher percentage of female students were enrolled when compared to the male students, that is, 57% and 43%, respectively. A similar trend was observed for the social sciences stream at the UG level, wherein 49% were male students and 51% were female students. It can be inferred that in arts and social sciences, the enrolment of girl students was higher when compared to the male students. In the engineering and technology field, it was vice versa.

Table 1. Distribution of Gender in Post-graduates Courses (in %).

Source: Compiled and calculated from AISHE (2021–2022, 2020–2021, 2019–2020) reports (includes public and private institutions of higher education).

Table 2. Distribution of Gender in Under-graduates Courses (in %).

Source: Compiled and calculated from AISHE (2021–2022, 2020–2021, 2019–2020) reports (includes public and private institutions of higher education).

The numbers show an improvement in enrolment, but the issue of gender disparity continues to exist in technical and non-technical courses. It clearly shows the societal stereotypes that girls are less interested in computer science and engineering when compared to boys. The researchers found that these stereotypes among class one to twelve students—children and adolescents—have a negative impact on girl students’ participation in these fields (Master et al., 2021). Moreover, these stereotypes are results of social and cultural capital. Some serious questions can be posed that why are technical courses more favoured by male students and less by female students. Research has also shown that families may be less willing to fund the education of a female child when compared to a male child. The nature of technical courses is known to be expensive than non-technical courses as it requires lab and electronic provisions. Therefore, arts and social sciences have a stereotype linked to being for girls and are also the preferred option by their family. This choice is ingrained in a girl child from childhood. Also, the fees structure being low when compared to science courses is another reason for this. Due to this, students who hail from weaker sections of the society feel excluded in the learning process (Bali, 2021), as their choices are based on family culture and choices. A high cost of education and existing financial debts specifically for the lower income group make education taxing (Rahman et al., 2022). Education in sciences is known to be for the rich, powerful and upper castes. The socio-economic background of a student and their career graph are reflected in the disciplinary choices they make; that is, the underrepresented groups are less represented by professional courses that require huge investments for a continuous time (Chanana, 2000).The students who hail from underrepresented groups tend to have several psychological barriers, which make them feel insecure (Nature, 2016). Consequently, a weak social and cultural capital influences the choices and consequently their learning outcome.

Social and Cultural Capital: Research Field

In interesting research findings, it was revealed that conferences are a platform for the development of one’s academic knowledge and networking. However, it was found that the conferences had lower participation from underrepresented groups and women when compared to men and upper caste academicians. This is the unfortunate state of affairs in a country where social capital is low for the mentioned groups and can be termed as a case of social exclusion (Sabharwal et al., 2020). In the age where publish and perish has gained importance, it has been observed that researchers gave more importance to strengthen their social and cultural capital; that is, they would wish to collaborate with their networks more often and also with people who would share their cultures. The collaborations were more focused on the mutual benefit of their networks (Aprile et al., 2021). It must be understood that the collaborations should be more with the intent to give a useful output to the society first.

Suggestions

The government has taken several steps to reduce inequalities in higher education. Financial assistance has been provided by the government for the socially and economically disadvantaged groups that have helped to improve the enrolment of students in higher education. Not only this, the establishment of educational institutions in their vicinity has enhanced accessibility to the rural community. The institutes have made efforts to ensure a gender balance in their admission process. Also, the development of courses in bilingual language has helped students from diverse backgrounds to get themselves educated (Government of India, 2020). To address disparities related to social and cultural capital in higher education, several best practices and policy solutions are recommended:

1. Financial aid and mentorship: The policies must be implemented as per the need of scholarships and financial aid programmes to support students from diverse socio-economic backgrounds (Hossler & Gallagher, 1987). Mentor–mentee programmes will help first-generation students to get guidance and support from experienced mentors throughout their academic journey (Crisp & Cruz, 2009). They are useful for all students to shape their thoughts and choices independently.
2. Academic support and inclusion initiatives: Providing academic writing workshops and language support for students who face issues in language and communication will be immensely beneficial to overcome fear and gain confidence (Leki, 2001). It is essential to create an inclusive campus environment for students to promote a sense of belongingness and equality (Hurtado & DeAngelo, 2012).
3. Accessibility of resources: Equitable access to essential educational resources, such as libraries and study spaces (Tinto, 2017), irrespective of students’ cultural or social backgrounds, should be provided.
4. Cultural competency training: It is essential to train faculty and staff in the aspect of cultural competency to ensure sensitivity to diverse backgrounds and student needs (Hurtado et al., 1999).
5. Data collection and monitoring progress: On a regular basis, data must be collected on student outcomes, disaggregated by socio-economic and cultural factors. Such data must be used to monitor progress, identify disparities and adjust policies and interventions as suitable.
6. Community engagement: The local communities and organisations can create engagements and events for underrepresented students into higher education. Social initiatives can be taken via outreach efforts to include college preparatory programmes, mentorship initiatives and workshops for parents and students. For example, some churches are examples of social capital that can play a significant role in community development because they work with reputable leaders who are driven by their religious convictions to serve their communities (Warren et al., 2001).
7. Advocacy and policy change: At the institutional and governmental levels, systemic issues related to social and cultural capital disparities should be addressed. Lobby for increased funding for education, fair admissions policies and anti-discrimination measures.
8. Research and evaluation: Support research initiatives that examine the impact of various interventions and policies on reducing disparities in higher education. Use evidence-based practices to inform future strategies.

Conclusion and Way Forward

In the realm of higher education, social and cultural capital play integral roles in shaping students’ access to and success within academic institutions. Based on theories of Pierre Bourdieu, this comprehensive review delves into the multifaceted ways in which these forms of capital exert influence and examines the disparities they create among students. This article discussed social and cultural capital, wherein social capital encompasses networks and relationships and cultural capital includes cultural knowledge, habits and skills acquired through upbringing, all of which impact students’ academic journeys.

To ensure equitable access to essential educational resources, it is important to emphasise the role of each stakeholder, that is, the student, parent, teacher, institution and the society, and to train faculty and staff in the area of cultural competency as it would help to reduce the influence of social and cultural capital in higher education. Considering this measure with effective implementation, it will help the institutions move closer to the situation of an ideal setting where there is equal opportunity for all students, irrespective of their social-cultural backgrounds (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990). The introduction of bridge courses for students who come from weaker backgrounds will help to eliminate their fear and become more confident. It will also help to improve their cultural capital. Those who have a weak parental social capital must not feel excluded or lost and can be provided suitable academic and mentoring support for their development. The role of teachers is also crucial in ensuring a behavioural change among students to treat everyone with equality and help each other in need. The country needs to reach the UN SDG goals by 2030, for which the support of the state is needed, and requires more proactive interventions from institutions to make higher education more inclusive.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.